POLICY OPTIONS FOR SUSTAINABILITY

·          Policies at all levels should address the negative environmental impacts of transport systems

Objectives for urban mobility and accessibility need to be presented in the light of national and international policies for transport and environment. Through the Fifth Environmental Action Programme, the EU and its Member States have set themselves a number of targets referring to air quality (NO_x , CO, VOCs, Particulate Matter, SO₂), global warming (CO₂) and noise, amongst others. The concentration of these problems in urban areas implies that it is in urban areas where most of the restorative actions will need to take place. The gap between the expected growth of transport and the political targets for stabilization and reduction of CO₂ represents a tremendous challenge for urban areas. Furthermore, it is often difficult for people living in rural areas to reduce car use, and the implication is, therefore, that cities must provide a greater share of the reduction of CO₂ and other pollutants.

There is now an overall agreement among policy-makers from different sectors and environmental organisations about the need to alter current urban mobility trends by reducing reliance on the private car. As long as the public readily accepts that the consequences of the car on the environment are unacceptable, they are not yet willing to accept that a reduction in its use is the only sensible solution. It is becoming more and more obvious that to alter these trends will also require a reduction in the demand for urban travel. While reducing reliance on the car could be achieved by actions designed to bring about modal split, reducing the demand for travel is a much more fundamental shift that requires a reorientation of urban transport planning. As indicated above, it is also necessary to bring into question the assumption that travelling opportunities and journey time should be continuously improved. The limits referring to travel by increased congestion and recognition of the environmental consequences may represent an opportunity to reverse the growth in the number and length of trips.

·          Policy recommendations for progression towards sustainability

The OECD study Urban Travel and Sustainable Development [1] sets out three strands of an integrated policy, aimed at moving towards sustainability. The first strand involves using best practice in urban policy. The second builds on the first by using innovative land-use and transport measures to reduce the need to travel and it converts best practice into a coherently structured policy package. The third strand involves the application of progressive increases in fuel taxation in order to reduce car kilometres and CO₂ emissions, and to reinforce the other policy measures. It is foreseen that it would take two or three decades to see the full effects of this integrated policy, but that benefits would start to show as soon as the policy is implemented.

The EU's strategy outlined in the Fifth Environmental Action Programme [2] , the Transport White Paper [3] and many of the Member States' policies and actions in cities, particularly seek to improve the urban traffic situation and thereby the urban environment. Among the actions suggested in EU policy documents are:

-          land-use planning strategies which reduce the need for mobility and allow for the development of alternatives in road transport;

-          promotion of urban transport systems which give priority to public transport, pedestrians and cyclists and provision of adequate links between the different stages of journey;

-          promotion of the use of private cars which are more environmentally friendly, along with changes in driving regulations and habits.

·          Integrated multi-modal urban transport systems

There is a need to develop inter-modal transport systems where complementary modes rather than competitive ones are promoted. Experience has shown, for example, that investment in public transport will not solve the problems unless combined with action to give public transport priority over private cars.

Similarly, restrictions on vehicle access to parts of the urban area and restrictive parking measures require additional measures to ensure alternative access to the car. Otherwise the restrictions may simply lead to the relocation of the business and retailers that are outside the restricted areas, to areas accessible only by car.

While fully integrated transport systems are rare, many European cities have established more limited, but still innovative, initiatives. These include elements of integrated systems such as:

-          measures to manage traffic demands through access restrictions, reserved lanes for certain vehicle types, road pricing, parking policies, traffic telematics tools and methods to restrict urban goods transport;

-          measures which give priority to public transport, or else support it, such as park and ride, the provision of tram, trolley bus and light rail systems and  inter-modality;

-          measures which give priority to cyclists and pedestrians;

-          experiments with specialist vehicles and fuels; and

-          measures to influence behaviour.

·          Traffic demand management

A EU's wide survey [4] recorded very high support for actions in course of limiting car traffic in town centres. Some 71% of respondents thought it would be effective, and there was equally strong support from both urban and rural residents. The same applied to frequent car users. Pedestrianisation of shopping areas is a measure that has been in existence for over twenty years in many towns and cities, but designs were tended to cover only a limited area, generally within the central business district. Since the mid-1980s, cities have been taking this idea further and reducing or eliminating car access to large parts of the urban area. Lübeck in Germany, for example, has gradually imposed an almost total ban on daytime traffic in the entire city centre. Priority for parking is given to residents and businessmen, and service traffic is permitted out of the restricted periods (10.00h - 18.00h). Initial objections from traders are no longer heard [5] .

Furthermore, the European cities, forming the 'Car-Free Cities Club', work towards reducing urban car use and possibly reinforcing the complete ban on the use of private cars during working hours in inner cities [6] . Still, it is important to realize that despite creating an improved local environment, car-free inner cities will only generate a very small share of the required reduction of CO₂, because the greatest part of urban transport and the expected growth are in the urban regions outside the inner cities.

The adoption of speed restrictions in certain areas such as city centres and residential areas is a less severe policy option that may serve either as a permanent policy or as a temporary action before traffic bans are imposed. To be effective, the speed limitations should be actively enforced. The installation of traffic calming measure can provide physical support to the enforcement of speed restrictions. However, speed restrictions need to be part of an overall traffic management plan in order to ensure that positive effects outbalance any negative impacts. Speed restrictions make areas safer and more accessible from pedestrians and cyclists' point of view, but on the other hand, they may cause that pollution levels rise as a result of higher inefficiency in fuel consumption. Traffic calming measures should also take into account the needs of emergency services, both in terms of the need for faster transport and comfort for any patients.

The use of reserved lanes for certain types of vehicle, the introduction of priority access for High Occupancy Vehicles (HOV lanes) has become commonplace in parts of the USA but is a relatively new measure in Europe. Its impact can only be somewhat peripheral being mainly directed at commuter traffic which itself generally accounts for 25-35% of trips. The use of public transport and car pooling is promoted in Madrid in Spain through the construction of an HOV lane on a main motorway link. As part of an overall package of measures to reduce congestion, the 'Systems Select' programme in Rotterdam in the Netherlands has introduced lanes reserved for goods vehicles, public transport, service vehicles and high occupancy vehicles on a number of roads giving access to Rotterdam's port facilities.

Road pricing has been widely advocated both as disinclinating towards private car use and as an income raiser. There is plenty of reading material on the subject, but so far, few projects have been implemented. Road pricing certainly has advantages. There is some evidence pointing that road pricing can induce the push for modal shift and it can also provide funding for alternatives to cars. There are, however, several disadvantages to take into consideration. Road pricing measures could divert traffic and lead to more urban sprawl and out of town developments if they are not integrated with planning policy.

In general, public opinion is hostile to road pricing, as evidenced by the 1991 EU's wide survey, according to which 65% of the surveyed said it would be ineffective [7] . However, when the charging is linked to paying for environmental damage, there is evidence that opinion is generally more favourable [8] . Urban road pricing is now being studied and planned in a number of countries and is likely to be put into practice. In order to be effective and acceptable it will need to be combined with using the funds raised to provide alternatives to cars as part of an environmental improvement package.

For local authorities parking is an important, and for some the major tool to control traffic volumes through both price and supply. Parking restrictions, still, do not affect through traffic or, generally, commercial vehicles. However, there are ways in which parking policy can restrict traffic access, for example by giving preference to residents over commuters, by limiting the parking provision for offices and other employment sites, and by prioritizing parking for environmentally friendly vehicles as part of an overall traffic policy. Following the 1992 referendum on car traffic, Amsterdam has chosen parking policy as the main instrument to reduce car journeys. The overall aim of reducing car traffic by 35% will be achieved by reducing commuter parking, giving priority to residents, constructing underground car parks and eliminating parking in the street from many areas or charging it at a much higher rate.

Traffic telematic tools, such as those tested through the EU DRIVE programme, can assist implementation. Such tools need to be used within the framework of a clear definition of the acceptable level of traffic in view of the environmental and planning constraints. In particular they can be used to encourage the transfer from the car to other means of transport.

Access restrictions on heavy goods vehicles have been part of the traffic policies of many cities for some time now. These generally involve limitations during a part of the day or night. In Sweden, the restrictions are based on an environmental index which requires heavy vehicles to be registered in three environmental categories [9] . Some countries and urban areas have begun to look at alternative solutions, such as distribution and logistic centres. For example, the Netherlands plans to reduce heavy vehicle movements in cities by 50% by the use of such centres.

Public transport has declined considerably in most cities over the past forty years despite the large scale of investments. Evidence shows that increased investment and other improvements have not resulted in reducing car traffic and that any increased usage often came from a shift from cycling and walking. Action is required on the level of service, comfort, image and safety, and genuine attention needs to be paid to improving the accessibility of public transport, so that people can use it safely and with confidence with reduced personal mobility. In addition, reserved lanes, links between networks and operating aid systems (telematics) require improvements, and the measures need to be integrated with those on car restraint in order to give priority to public transport over private transport (for example, at traffic lights).

The accessibility of public transport should be improved in a sense of taking into consideration the needs of people with reduced mobility - including disabled and elderly people, and parents with children in pushchairs. People with reduced mobility are literally handicapped if the public transport systems are not easily accessible and if they have no alternative transport systems. Accessibility is an issue for all public transport users, and apart from the specific needs of some user groups, the factors, such as location of stops and stations, frequency of lines, and both physical and economic accessibility, determine the quality of the public transport service. The Commission has drawn up a report on what is needed to achieve a comfortable and accessible public transport system in response to the Council's Resolution of 16 December 1991 and in response to the White Paper on the future development of the Common Transport Policy. The Commission has outlined the measures that should be undertaken at community, national, regional and local levels.

Examples of good and accessible transport systems include the new light railway in Grenoble; low-floor buses, vehicle design, bus-stop design; the Service-route in Sweden that carries small buses and operates on a flexibly timetabled basis from residential areas to hospitals, town centres, etc.

Experience with low-floor buses in Germany indicates an initial profit of 20-25% when compared to existing designs of bus. After six years of production of low-floor buses, the difference in cost is about 10%, with certain predictions of an ultimate premium of only 2-5%. Operational costs can be reduced as a result of the reduced period of waiting for the bus and hence overall running speeds, reducing the requirement for buses and drivers on routes. A current evaluation of low-floor buses in Bremen in Germany shows that the cost of low-floor buses is 10% higher, but higher speed and easier operational result in a reduction of the number of vehicles needed by 10%.  In any case, only 5% of bus operational costs arise from bus purchase.

Park and ride has been widely developed throughout Europe as a measure in addition to public transport improvements. To be effective, park and ride schemes need to include activities on placing signposts, pedestrian links, pricing advantages and security measures for parked cars and drivers, and they need to be accompanied by reductions of parking space in city centres and other measures for cars. The city of Oxford estimates that park and ride reduces daily traffic to the centre by some 10%. At rush hour the reduction is as much as 24% [10] .

The revival or reintroduction of trams and trolley buses has been a specific feature of public transport policies in a number of cities in recent years. Other cities have invested in light rail systems. Examples of new tram systems include those in Grenoble, Strasbourg and Nantes in France. In the UK, light rail systems that serve both the town centre and suburban areas have been introduced in Manchester and Sheffield. The city of Nancy has been using bi-mode trolley buses since 1983 and estimates that their use has resulted in a 30% reduction in energy consumption on the lines where these buses operate. Intermodality schemes are also of some interest.

While a range of initiatives is being developed to improve public transport and reduce the use of private cars, it is important to realize that the car is difficult to replace for certain journeys. This is particularly true for trips around urban areas for which public transport systems with fixed route are often inappropriate and taxis are relatively expensive.

Partly in response to this challenge, a number of schemes are being developed in Europe to encourage modes mediate between private and public transport. These include car-sharing schemes as, for example, in Berlin and community taxis to service low-density areas up to now more familiar in rural than in urban areas. Interesting experiments are in progress in Italy and France to evaluate the potential for 'individual public transport' in urban areas. These experiments involve fleets of small electric vehicles which are self-driven and resemble personal taxis or rented cars.

·          Priority to cyclists and pedestrians

In recent years these forms of transport have declined considerably and policy makers have tended to overlook them [11] . However, measures for giving priority to cycles and pedestrians should be much more seriously taken into account, as they have clear benefits, in principle low capital cost and very limited impact on the environment. In addition, since a large proportion of urban trips are minimised - around one quarter of those trips are less than 3km long in Germany and the UK - there is enormous potential to shift these short trips from driving a car to riding a bicycle and walking.

Public transport finds it difficult to provide for short distances, especially when such trips have their origin and destination in suburban areas. The bicycle is the means that is the most appropriate for short trips, it has a door-to-door ability and are more flexible than the private car, and in many ways a more appropriate substitute than conventional fixed-route public transport systems. There are some definite signs of a change of attitude in cities beyond those in the Netherlands and Denmark, such as Delft and Copenhagen, which have traditionally been associated with cycling.

Several surveys have shown that when choosing a transport mode, time saving has priority over safety and convenience [12] . Planning for cyclists and pedestrians must therefore meet the need for short and direct lines, without neglecting the elements of safety and convenience.

Cyclist-friendly and pedestrian-friendly planning therefore requires the prevention of detours and time of travelling. The network of cycling and walking routes should be dense to allow direct access to any destination. Connecting paths, shortcuts, passages through buildings, underground passages or bridges to overcome obstacles such as rivers, rail tracks or motorways, can reduce trip length. Waiting hours should be minimised as much as possible, for example by providing time saving traffic light phases for cyclists and pedestrians, and traffic light by-pass options for cyclists turning right (or left in the UK).

Cyclists and pedestrians must also be able to move safely and without fear. Points where collision with other transport modes are likely to happen, should therefore be removed, and control along the roads could be used to prevent the feeling of fear. Various measures, such as traffic calming and speed reduction, emphasis on visibility, prevention of blind areas, safe design of intersections with cycle paths, advanced stop-lines for cyclists, and separate lanes for cyclists going straight ahead or turning left at intersection areas, can improve traffic safety.

In pursuit of safety objectives, many cities have established cycle tracks separated from the road and following less direct routes. The longer distances, coupled with the danger to cyclists travelling in isolated areas at night, have discouraged their use and threatened to undermine the credibility of cycle track policies, as has occurred, for example, in Milton Keynes in UK. Therefore, providing cycle tracks along main highways is advocated, using some of the road's capacity currently appointed to motorised vehicles. As mentioned above, accompanying action to moderate motor traffic will therefore be of benefit.

This raises an issue which has yet to be resolved in many European cities. A real commitment to the slower modes (walking and cycling) is likely to involve reduction of highway capacity, for example, by narrowing the carriageway for motorised traffic to provide space for a cycle lane or to widen pavements. This may, in the short term, lead to greater congestion as capacity is reduced and speeding decreases. However, such a strategy might be an essential component of a genuinely sustainable long-term transport policy.

Cycling and walking should also be made pleasant and convenient. Wide pavements and separate cycle tracks, levelled-off or continuing pavements and cycle tracks at intersections, pedestrianisation schemes, removal of obstacles such as kerbstones, smooth surface on cycle tracks, and speed humps that do not obstruct bicycle traffic, are the measures that all contribute to increasing the pleasure and convenience of cycling and walking. The development of green corridors based on transport routes, principally footpaths, cycleways and waterways, to form a network of 'greenways', is also a way of enhancing the environmental quality of the cycling and walking environment. Cycling can further be promoted by providing secure bicycle parking facilities near public transport stations, shopping centres, schools, public buildings etc., and by allowing the transport of bicycles in public transport vehicles. Providing hygiene-maintaining facilities at work places is also important. Employers could also use various initiatives to reward employees who cycle, walk or use public transport to get to work.

The creation of functional, safe and attractive conditions for cycling and walking should be supported by so called 'soft policies'. These include not only public relations in terms of advertising, but also creating a cyclist and pedestrian friendly climate. Cyclists and pedestrians should feel that they are respected and welcome as traffic participants [13] . The central area of Brussels, for example, illustrates the way in which the emphasis on providing the motor car has created areas that are not attractive for walking and cycling. Examples of cities paying much attention on cyclists include Erlangen in Germany and Groningen in the Netherlands.

·          Experimenting with specialized vehicles and fuels

Electric/hybrid vehicles could be introduced, especially for commercial fleets, to cope with air quality problems. As with electric vehicles, alternative/reformulated fuels could be introduced on a regional/urban level to deal with a particular local air pollution problem. These measures, of course, do not contribute towards solving the congestion problem, and in some cases simply displace the pollution from the urban area to the area around power stations. Many pilot projects and schemes are being implemented throughout the EU. A network of cities (Citelec) interested in              co-operation on common projects has been existing for several years. In some cities people feel that electric cars play a different role than private cars and they are being used more in rental systems. In Florence and many other Italian cities, electric vehicles are the only vehicles permitted in the city on days when the city otherwise is closed for traffic due to high pollution level. The feasibility of this scheme is in large measure due to the development of a bi-modal scooter by an Italian manufacturer.

·          The influence on behaviour

Public awareness and information campaigns to influence behaviour are essential accompanying measures to the range of actions outlined above. There is also some evidence to show that campaigns themselves can make a small but significant contribution. The influence on behaviour can be based on pull-factors, but linking should also be made with healthy lifestyles, economic efficiency and equity. A key element is to make the most of favourable public opinion. A large majority is in favour of preferential treatment of the more environment friendly modes of transport.

·          Actions by national governments

National governments have key responsibility for fiscal policy, the provision of funding and subsidy, methods of evaluating transport investments, and the regulatory regime under which transport operates. They are often directly involved with the provision of national transport infrastructure, producing a network to which urban areas must fit, and the specification of national guidelines for land use and development planning. It is therefore in the following areas that action may be taken:

-          using economic means, such as additional taxes on the purchase, licensing and use of vehicles to ensure that the full external costs of travel are paid by the road user;

-          developing a fiscal policy which encourages the use of transport modes which impose least damage on the environment, for example alteration of company car taxation to put public transport on an equal footing;

-          any money received from the taxation of environmentally damaging modes should be 'ring-fenced' or 'ear-marked' for the financing or subsidy of environmental improvements or less harmful means of transport;

-          the design of a regulatory regime which enables competition where it is desirable, while ensuring control of quality and the impacts of transport on environment;

-          the development and use of techniques for evaluating transport modes in an equitable way which takes account of their diverse environmental impacts;

-          the specification of a system of land use and transport planning which recognises the  important relationships between these two functional areas (as in the Netherlands and, more recently, in the UK).

·         Responsibility of local governments

Local government has ultimate responsibility for the 'shape' of the urban environment through control and influence over development and local transport. It will often provide highway and other infrastructure and may control public transport provision. In many countries, transport operators are under the ownership of local authorities. It is therefore essential to plan strategically to set up local objectives on accessibility, environment and economic development. These sometimes contrasting policies will need to be resolved at a political level to ensure that the appropriate priority is in accord with each area. Local environmental targets will need to be set side by side with those of accessibility and development. Another measure, that by-local authorities should be undertaking, is to use legal instruments to enforce speed limits.