This research is intended to explore and analyze the interaction between
women, community organizations and local government and its complexities
in incorporating a gender perspective in local governance. This will thus
take the debate on gender in local governance beyond the realms of women's
involvement in local government. The implementation of the recent Law 22/1999
on Local Autonomy in Indonesia poses potentials as well as threats to the
empowerment of women considering the invisibility of women in local governance
in Indonesia. This study aims to sensitize diverse stakeholders in local
governance about the urgency of a gender sensitive local governance while
at the same time empowering women to get involved in determining local
government agenda and benefiting from development process at the local
level rather than being used as vehicle of development. It is hope that
this study will contribute to the theoretical constructs of a gender perspective
debate on local governance.
Despite the reality that women actively contribute to community
development, policy makers and planners at the local level often fail to
recognise women's specific needs and fail to consult them or to address
their problems (Moser 1989; Beal 1997). Both women's contributions and
specific needs in local governance disappear under the umbrella of the
community. The gendered dynamics of local government structures and the
culture of male domination in local government (Halford 1992) provide explanation
to the disappearance of both women's contributions and specific needs.
The neglect of women and women's issues discourages women from getting
involved in local governance which then interactively contributes to their
invisibility in local governance.
Additionally, the construction of gender in society put some constraints on women participating in local governance. Women's involvement in community is determined by the societal norms and values of what is womens' proper role (Desai 1996:22; Byrne and Laier 1996). While women's activities in providing social services for communities such as in health, education, and housing are considered culturally acceptable, women often experience rejection and opposition from men when it comes to involvement in governance in terms of decision making processes and political activities.
Some feminists have argued that the disappearance of women's political participation basically derived from the definition of politics as male activity while activities in which women were frequently involved in, such as in human needs and food, were not considered as political (Bouroque and Grossholtz 1998; Sapiro 1998). In this view the divisive constructions of public and private are placed in opposition to each other. This private and public division has continuously institutionalised women's exclusion from the public sphere (Baden 2000). However, the distinction between public and private sphere which has its roots in Western liberal thought may not be adequate in explaining the subordination of the women in the Third World countries since what constitutes the private and public sphere varies across countries and cultures (Boyd 1997; Baker 1999). The subordination of women in third world countries should rather be looked upon the multiplicity of structures in which women interact in their daily life activities (Boyd 1997; Buss 1997).
Local government is frequently pointed out as an entry point in changing political agenda to be more gender sensitive (Philips 1996; Mauclay 1998). The division between private and public become blurred at the local level providing an entry point for women's empowerment. Decentralisation as the transfer of power from central government to local government thus may open the way for enhancing women's participation in influencing local development policy-making. On the other hand, women's multiple roles and responsibilities assigned by the community along with the neglect of the value of women's contribution by local government seem to constrain women in participating in local development process (civic engagement) and contribute to the differences between women and men in local governance.
Up until the 1990s gender received little attention in the local governance debate. Both international development agencies and studies on local government which are based on a gender perspective have since helped in bringing the gender issue to the forefront of the debate governance theories and practice. However, much of the thought on women and local government which is based on Western concepts and experiences focuses on women working within local government (Halford 1992; Grant & Tancred 1992; Little 1994; Philip 1996; Pringle &Watson 1998). The different experiences, needs and interests of women in Third World countries from Western women (Desai 1996; Beal 1997; Mauclay 1998; Honour,Palnitker and Sneha 1998) means that theories and strategies in engendering local governance need to be based on the characteristics of women in the Third World countries and the roles and functions of local government in these countries.
The urgency of incorporating gender sensitivity into local governance in Indonesia
An exploration to the implementation of gender ideology during the New Order1 era in Indonesia is central in understanding the complexity in empowering women in governance in Indonesia. Suryakusuma (1996:101) calls the New Order's gender ideology 'State Ibuism' in which women were defined as 'appendages and companions to their husbands, as procreators of the nation, as mothers and educators of children, as housekeepers, and as members of Indonesian society'. By emphasising the concept of "kodrat dan martabat wanita" (the destiny and dignity of women is as woman and mother), the New Order has continuously produced and institutionalized an ideal image of Indonesian woman, whose role is centered around the family. This gender ideology combined with a repressive capitalist regime during the New Order controlled and suppressed women (Suryakusuma 1996; Pakpahan 1996; Sunindyo 1998; Wieringa 1999).
The ignorance of women's collective issues and needs among both central and local government offices significantly contributes to the marginality of women in governance. Based on recent researcher's informal conversations with women's members of the TPP2W (Management Team for the Enhancement of Women's Role at the Local Level), local government officials consider women's issues as merely women's problems not national problems, thus, women's programs are not a priority in local government development programs. Moreover, other factors such as vague concepts of the enhancement of women's role among the team and local government officials, the obscurity of TPP2W basic concepts, gender, stereotypes and religion, inadequate funds for women's empowerment activities, all have hindered the accomplishment of TPP2W (Personal comment, March 2000).
Community organisations concerned with women's issues experience internal constraints such as limited financial and human resources, unclear visions and understanding towards the concept of gender, weak networking and lack of access to the development planning process. Moreover, these organisations focus mainly on economic development, and have neglected the political empowerment programs which also can play a significant role in making local governance more gender sensitive.
In 2001 greater autonomy will be granted to local governments in Indonesia to decide and conduct local development processes based on their own regional potential and characteristics. The recent issuance of UU No 22/1999 (Law on Local Government), constitutionally changed the relationship and position between central and local governments limiting central government power to the areas of the judiciary, security and defence, foreign policy and other activities specified by government regulations, while the regions have the authority over all other government activities. Based on this law, local government is comprised of provincial, city/municipality and village levels which are equal in position and independent from each other.
This new law is intended to increase the capacity of civil society and community participation by strengthening the position of the people's representation in monitoring and asking for accountability of the executive. With the increasing power of the local government which has to be accountable to people's representatives it is hoped that local governance in Indonesia will be more participatory and will enable local government to act in accordance with the community's needs and aspirations.
However, the stress on strengthening local government and people representation which is stipulated in the new law may be inadequate in strengthening and increasing community participation, let alone in being sensitive to women's needs and interests and empowering for women. It focuses heavily on devolving power to local authorities and representatives, yet does not mention the devolution of power to the community. This is an important issue if local government is to be accountable to the community.
Moreover this law still lacks a gender perspective. None of the chapters in UU No.22/1999 recognise the importance of a gender perspective in local governance. The previous law on local government was heavily focused on economic growth as the measurement of achievement in implementing local governments' programmes. This emphasis on growth along with gender insensitivity of local government and its mechanisms has marginalised women and led to the invisibility of women in local governance in Indonesia. Without elaboration in law and programmes for women's empowerment at the local level, the devolution of power to local government women will continuously exclude women from determining local development agendas.
The implementation of the UU No.22/1999 (Law on Local Government), therefore,
will provide opportunities as well as threats for women in participating
and in benefiting from the development process. It is at this critical
time of changes in the political system in Indonesia that exploration of
the interaction between women, community organisations and local government
in engendering local governance is crucial in order to see how women can
be empowered to determine their own roles in development rather than being
merely used as a vehicle for development.
C. OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY
* To identify structural and institutional problems facing local government
in engendering local governance and in building a synergistic partnership
with women and community organisations.
* To identify women's perceptions and aspirations concerning the role
of local government which then will be used to develop criteria as to what
constitutes a gender sensitive local governance.
* To identify ways of promoting gender-sensitive development among
policy makers and other stakeholders at the local level.
* To bring together diverse stakeholders to analyze problems at the
local level and search for strategies to enable both men and women to direct
the development agenda.
* To write a research and policy paper in coordination with mentors
for the local governor, North Sumatera women's Caucus, academics, community-based
organizations and women's interest NGOs.
D. RESEARCH QUESTIONS
Based on the research objectives, I have formulated the following research
questions:
* How do women and men differ in making use of local resources and
institutions and in benefiting from services provided by local government?
* What problems do women and local governments face in realising gender
sensitivity in local governance?
* How are women currently organised at local levels and how effective
are they in influencing decision making at the local level?
* Under what circumstances and in what ways do women and community
organisations collaborate among themselves to ensure the accountability
of local government?
* How can a synergistic relationship between women, community organisations
and local government be achieved in engendering local governance?
The researcher will first conduct Focus Group Discussions (FGDs)
with diverse stakeholders at the local level such as: community organizations
which include women's religious groupings and 'arisan' (informal rotary
saving group), women's interest NGOs, North Sumatera Women Caucus, Management
Team for the Enhancement of Women's Role (TPP2W) and local government officials
in Medan and Toba Samosir. Separate women and men FGDs will be held at
the initial stage of the research in order to avoid male domination in
discussion and the occurrence of conflict between women and men. The division
of FGDs will also consider differences of experiences and education within
women and men. Immediately after important issues have been identified,
an FGD consisting of some of the women and men from the previous FGDs will
be conducted in order to share their experiences and ideas in ensuring
gender sensitivity in local governance.
Participants for in-depth interviews will include head of local government officials, women as members of the regional legislative body, key persons in TPP2W, Women Caucus, women's interest NGOs and community organizations.
A seminar will be conducted in order to analyze and evaluate research information and to produce relevant policies in engendering local governance. The findings will be disseminated to research participants and the Ministry of Women's Empowerment at the national level. The project will respond to and create opportunities to share the lessons from this research with other local, regional and international organizations involved in engendering local governance.
1 New Order refers to a regime in Indonesia, headed by Soeharto who
established office in 1966 after the taking power from the regime called
the Old Order. In 1998 Soeharto was overthrown by the people and has been
replaced by a more legitimate government.